Judicial responses to conflict-related sexual violence

International jurisdiction
The gradual criminalisation of conflic-related sexual violence

Les juridictions pénales internationales

1. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) :

This court has played a major role in criminalising sexual violence committed in times of conflict. Its statute includes rape as a crime against humanity when committed during an armed conflict and directed against a civilian population [1].

The tribunal conducted the first trial to deal exclusively with sexual violence (ICTY, Furundzija, 1998), and was the first international tribunal to classify rape as a crime against humanity (ICTY, Kunarac et al., 2002, which concerned "rape camps" in Foca, Bosnia) [2]. Consequently, the ICTY has developed an extensive body of case law criminalising sexual violence. More than a third of those convicted by the ICTY have been found guilty of crimes involving sexual violence [3].

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) :

The ICTR has also included rape in its statutes. In 2001, it became the first (and to date the only) international tribunal to consider acts of sexual violence as constitutive elements of the crime of genocide, in the judgment of Jean-Paul Akayesu [4]: The Chamber concluded that the rapes had been committed with the intention of destroying the Tutsi ethnic group. The court also defined the crime of rape, for which there exists no commonly accepted definition in international law [5]. This judgment sets a historic precedent for international criminal justice and the punishment of sexual violence linked to conflicts.

THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

The International Criminal Court (ICC): The founding treaty of the ICC, the Rome Statute (in force since July 2002) expressly penalizes crimes of sexual violence. It proposes a definition of this crime, attached to war crimes and crimes against humanity. These abuses include rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced sterilization or any "other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity"[6].

They can constitute:

A war crime, when committed in the context of an armed conflict, and in connection with this conflict.
A crime against humanity, when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack, targeting a civilian population.
A genocide, when committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.

[Last updated: June 2023]

Some key cases

In 2016, Congolese Jean-Pierre Bemba was found guilty by the ICC of crimes against humanity and war crimes, in particular for the rapes committed in the Central African Republic by the troops of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (the MLC) of which he was in control [7]. Bemba was convicted in his capacity as military commander, and not as the direct perpetrator of the rapes. This was the ICC's first conviction for the use of sexual violence as a war crime and a crime against humanity. However, at his appeal trial in 2018, Bemba was acquitted, due to errors that affected the first instance decision and because the judges ultimately considered that he could not be held criminally responsible as a military commander for the crimes committed by MLC troops [8].

It was not until 2019 that the ICC convicted the Congolese Bosco Ntaganda of rape and sexual slavery, qualified as war crimes and crimes against humanity [9]. This decision was confirmed on appeal in 2021 [10] and is now final. Ntaganda was sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment, making him the first person to be definitively convicted by the ICC for acts of sexual violence.

Recently, in 2021, Ugandan warlord Dominic Ongwen was also convicted of numerous sexual crimes, including forced marriage, torture, rape, sexual slavery, enslavement, forced pregnancy and outrages upon personal dignity. He was sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment [11]. This conviction was upheld on appeal on 15 December 2022, making it the ICC's second definitive conviction for sexual and gender-based crimes.

Les tribunaux pénaux internationaux

La Cour Pénale Internationale

Les juridictions hybrides

3. HYBRID JURISDICTIONS

Mixed and hybrid tribunals are national jurisdictions that allow international crimes to be judged under the domestic law of the State concerned [12], but which also combine elements of international jurisdictions, in terms of their staff, their operation and the categories of crimes covered [13]. They are generally set up under the auspices of international organisations such as the UN. These courts are set up in countries that have experienced crises or conflicts, to judge those responsible for violations of international law when the country's own judicial system is unable to do so.

The Special Court for Sierra Leone

The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) was set up under an agreement between the United Nations and the Sierra Leonean government to judge crimes committed during Sierra Leone's civil war from 1991 to 2002. It handed down judgements in June 2007 and February 2009 condemning sexual slavery as a war crime, rape as a crime against humanity and the practice of forced marriages committed by troops of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF).

Charles Taylor le 30 mai 2012.

(Photo United Photos. Reuters)

In April 2012, the SCSL handed down the first ever conviction against a head of state, former Liberian President Charles Taylor [14]. He was found guilty of aiding and abetting the rape and sexual enslavement of girls and women, crimes against humanity and war crimes, committed during the Sierra Leone conflict by members of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The jurisprudence of this court is one of the richest in the field of sexual violence.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

These chambers were set up in 2003 with the help of the United Nations to judge crimes committed under the Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979. One of the cases (the second trial, "Case 002") deals in particular with sexual violence allegedly committed by former Khmer Rouge leaders Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan.

A key case

In November 2018, the defendants were found guilty of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including forced marriages and rape committed in the context of these forced marriages [15]. This trial is the first to recognise these crimes, committed as part of the implementation of the national policy to regulate marriage [16]. Many couples were forced to marry and then "have sexual relations with their new spouse" [17].

Nuon Chea et Khieu Samphan le 18 juillet 2012 (Photos CECT)

The Special Criminal Court of the Central African Republic

The Central African Republic has a specialised judicial body, the Special Criminal Court, created in 2015 to prosecute cases of "serious human rights violations and serious violations of international humanitarian law" committed in the country since 1 January 2003. Crimes of sexual violence committed since that date can therefore be prosecuted, and even feature prominently in the "Investigation, Prosecution and Investigation Strategy" [18].

RÉFÉRENCES

[1] Nations Unies, Statut actualisé du Tribunal Pénal International pour L’ex-Yougoslavie, Septembre 2009, Article 5.

[2] TPIY, Crimes sex uels - Les affaires clés

[3] TPIY, Les crimes sexuels

[4] TPIR, Chambre de première instance I, Le Procureur c. Jean Paul Akayesu, Affaire n° ICTR-96-4-T, Jugement, 2 septembre 1998.

[5] TPIR, Communiqué de presse, UNE PREMIERE DANS L'HISTOIRE : AKAYESU RECONNU COUPABLE DE GENOCIDE PAR LE TRIBUNAL CRIMINEL INTERNATIONAL POUR LE RWANDA, 3 septembre 1998.

[6] Statut de Rome, Article 7-1-g) pour les crimes contre l’humanité, et Article 8-2-b-xxii) et Article 8-2-e-vi) pour les crimes de guerre.

[7] Chambre de première instance III, Situation en République centrafricaine, Affaire Le Procureur c. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Jugement rendu en application de l’article 74 du Statut, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, 21 mars 2016.

[8] CPI, Fiche d’information Situation en République centrafricaine, Le Procureur c. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, ICC-01/05-01/08 [Mise à jour Août 2021]. Voir également le Jugement en appel complet : Chambre d’appel, Arrêt relatif à l’appel interjeté par Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo contre le Jugement rendu en application de l’article 74 du Statut par la Chambre de première instance III, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, 8 juin 2018.

[9] Chambre de première instance IV, Situation en République Démocratique du Congo, Affaire le Procureur c. Bosco Ntaganda, Jugement, 8 juillet 2019.

[10] CPI, Communiqué de presse “Affaire Ntaganda : la Chambre d'appel de la CPI confirme la condamnation et la peine”, 30 mars 2021.

[11] CPI, Fiche d’information Situation en Ouganda, Le Procureur c. Dominic Ongwen, ICC-02/04-01/15 [Mise à jour août 2021]

[12] Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Les juridictions hybrides, [Dernière consultation le 31 janvier 2022]

[13] Vie publique, Fiche Thématique Qu’est-ce qu’un tribunal international spécial ?, 27 août 2019

[14] Human Rights Watch, Sierra Leone : La condamnation de l’ex-président libérien Charles Taylor est un pas historique, 26 avril 2012.

[15] Chambres Extraordinaires au sein des tribunaux cambodgiens, Résumé du Jugement rendu par la Chambre de première instance dans le cadre du Dossier 002/02, 16 novembre 2018.

[16] FIDH, Cambodge : Dans un verdict historique, le tribunal jugeant les Khmers rouges reconnaît les mariages forcés comme crimes contre l’humanité et condamne d’anciens dirigeants khmer rouges pour génocide, 19 novembre 2018.

[17] Chambres Extraordinaires au sein des tribunaux cambodgiens, Résumé du Jugement rendu par la Chambre de première instance dans le cadre du Dossier 002/02, 16 novembre 2018, paragraphe 40.

[18] Cour Pénale Spéciale de la République Centrafricaine, Stratégie d'enquête, de poursuites et d'instructions, 10 février 2020, paragraphe 57.

[19] Cour Pénale Spéciale de la République Centrafricaine, Communiqué de presse relatif à la décision de la chambre d'accusation dans l'affaire des tueries de Koundjili et Lemouna, Communiqué de presse CPS n°171221, 20 décembre 2021.

[20] Justince info. Centrafrique : le premier jugement de la Cour pénale spéciale. 1er novembre 2022

[21] TRIAL International, Hissene Habre, 27 juillet 2020.